The Astika Tradition

Darshana means "vision" or "way of seeing." Classical Indian philosophy organises orthodox (Astika) thought into six interrelated systems, paired with logical complements:

        ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
        │          SHAD-DARSHANA (Six Visions)            │
        ├──────────────────┬──────────────────────────────┤
        │      PAIR        │      FOCUS                   │
        ├──────────────────┼──────────────────────────────┤
        │  Nyaya — Vaisheshika  │ Logic & Atomism         │
        │  Samkhya — Yoga       │ Cosmology & Practice    │
        │  Mimamsa — Vedanta    │ Ritual & Metaphysics    │
        └──────────────────┴──────────────────────────────┘

1. Nyaya — The School of Logic

Founded by Gautama (Akshapada) around 2nd century BCE.

• Core question: How do we know what we know?
• 16 categories (padarthas) of inquiry, including pramana (means of knowledge), prameya (object of knowledge), and anumana (inference).
• Four valid sources of knowledge (Pramanas):

1. Pratyaksha — Perception
2. Anumana — Inference
3. Upamana — Comparison
4. Shabda — Verbal testimony

Famous Inference Structure (Anumana):

1. Pratijna   — There is fire on the hill           (Proposition)
2. Hetu       — Because there is smoke              (Reason)
3. Udaharana  — Wherever smoke, there is fire (e.g. kitchen)  (Example)
4. Upanaya    — This hill has smoke                 (Application)
5. Nigamana   — Therefore, this hill has fire       (Conclusion)

2. Vaisheshika — Atomic Theory

Founded by Kanada Maharshi, predating Greek atomism.

• Reality is composed of eternal, indivisible atoms (paramanu).
• Seven Categories (Padarthas): Substance, Quality, Action, Generality, Particularity, Inherence, Non-existence.
• Nine Substances: Earth, Water, Fire, Air, Ether (Akasha), Time, Space, Self (Atman), Mind (Manas).

3. Samkhya — Dualistic Cosmology

Founded by Kapila Muni. The oldest of the systems.

• Two eternal realities: Purusha (pure consciousness) and Prakriti (primal matter).
• 24 Tattvas (principles) evolve from Prakriti:
• 5 elements (earth, water, fire, air, ether)
• 5 sense organs + 5 action organs
• 5 tanmatras (subtle elements)
• 1 manas (mind), 1 ahamkara (ego), 1 mahat (intellect)
• Plus 1 Mula Prakriti = 24
• Liberation = discriminating Purusha from Prakriti.

4. Yoga — Practical Discipline

Codified by Patanjali. Builds on Samkhya metaphysics and adds Ishvara (cosmic principle).

• Eight limbs (Ashtanga) — detailed in 2.2.
• Goal: Chitta-vritti-nirodha ("cessation of mental fluctuations").

5. Mimamsa (Purva) — Ritual Hermeneutics

Founded by Jaimini. Focuses on the first part of the Veda (ritual section).

• Develops the theory of Dharma through rigorous textual interpretation.
• Pioneer of legal interpretation methods still used in Indian jurisprudence.

6. Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa) — Metaphysics

Based on the Upanishads. Three main sub-schools:

The Nastika Schools

For completeness, three influential Nastika (non-Vedic) systems also flourished:

• Buddhism (Gautama Buddha, ~5th century BCE)
• Jainism (Mahavira, ~6th century BCE)
• Charvaka (materialist, sceptical)

Key Terms — Lesson 1.3 (Shad-Darshana)

Founders, the three pairs and the Astika/Nastika line are the highest-yield facts here — memorise them as a table.

Darshana — "Vision / way of seeing"; a school of philosophy. Astika — Orthodox schools that accept the authority of the Vedas (the six darshanas). Nastika — Heterodox schools that reject Vedic authority (Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka). Pramana — A valid means of knowledge; Nyaya accepts four (Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana, Shabda). Anumana — Inference; structured in five steps (Pratijna, Hetu, Udaharana, Upanaya, Nigamana). Padartha — "Category of reality"; Vaisheshika lists seven, Nyaya sixteen. Paramanu — The eternal, indivisible atom of Vaisheshika (Kanada), predating Greek atomism. Purusha & Prakriti — Samkhya's two eternal realities: pure consciousness and primal matter. Advaita — Shankara's non-dualism: Atman = Brahman.

Exam Pointers

• "Name the six darshanas with their founders" (5 marks) → Nyaya (Gautama), Vaisheshika (Kanada), Samkhya (Kapila), Yoga (Patanjali), Mimamsa (Jaimini), Vedanta (Badarayana).
• "State the three traditional pairs" (3 marks) → Nyaya–Vaisheshika, Samkhya–Yoga, Mimamsa–Vedanta.
• "Differentiate Astika and Nastika" (2-3 marks) → acceptance vs rejection of Vedic authority; name the three Nastika schools.